The sustainable development handbook for artisanal and small-scale gold mining in zambia Dr. Kelvin Kamayoyo
T
HE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT HANDBOOK FOR ARTISANAL AND
SMALL-SCALE GOLD MINING IN ZAMBIA
Gold Mining Cohabitation Model[1]
‘‘Sustainability, Inclusiveness and Profitability”
- People • Mining • Economy • Environment
Prepared by:
Dr. Kelvin Kamayoyo[2]
© 2025 by Dr. Kelvin Kamayoyo. All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit, including © notice, is given to the source.
Table of Contents
- Alignment to National Development Plan…………….. 10
- Stakeholder Mapping…….. 11
- Conceptual Framework….. 14
7.2.3 Anchor Gold Processor………………….. 15
7.2.4 Revenue Sharing Segmentation…………….. 15
7.2.4.1 Revenue Sharing Option 1:………………….. 15
7.2.4.2 Revenue Sharing Option 2:………………….. 15
7.2.4.3 Revenue Sharing Option 3:………………….. 15
7.3.1 People-Centric Approach………………….. 16
7.3.2 Integration with Industrial Value Chains.. 16
7.3.3 Leveraging Expertise……………………………….. 17
7.3.4 Sustainability and Profitability………………. 17
9.1 Identification of Potential Mining Site with Mineral Deposits………………………. 18
9.2 Stakeholder Engagement and Ring Fencing of the Mining Site………………….. 18
9.3 Identification of Key Players and Appointment of a Site Manager………………… 18
10.1.1 Unique Investment Approach………………….. 19
10.1.2 Increased Local Participation……………… 19
10.1.3 Competitive Pricing and Transparent Valuation……………………………….. 19
10.1.4 Large-Scale Processing………………… 19
10.2.1 Dependence on Global Market Trends…. 19
10.2.2 Energy Infrastructure Challenges……………………………….. 19
10.2.3 Regulatory Uncertainty……………….. 19
10.3.1 Growing Demand for Gold……………………. 19
10.3.2 Investment in Renewable Energy……… 19
10.3.3 Exploration of New Mining Areas…………….. 19
10.4.1 Environmental Concerns………………….. 19
10.4.2 Global Economic Conditions………………… 19
11.1 Increased Local Participation and Sustainability……………….. 20
11.2 Improved Transparency and Accountability………… 20
11.3 Enhanced Economic Growth and Investment Opportunities……………….. 20
11.4 Stability and Predictability in the Gold Industry……………………….. 20
12.1 Risk 1: Regulatory Challenges…………………… 20
12.2 Risk 2: Market Volatility………………………………….. 20
12.3 Risk 3: Environmental and Social Impacts………… 20
12.4 Risk 4: Conflict and Instability…………………….. 20
14.1 Step 1: Identification and Preparation of Mining Site (2-Weeks)………………. 21
14.2 Step 2: Registration of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners (3-Weeks)….. 21
14.3 Step 3: Conduct Training and Capacity Building (3-Weeks)………………………… 21
14.4 Step 4: Identification of an Anchor Gold Processor (3-Weeks)………………………… 21
14.5 Step 5: Identifiy Auxiliary Service Providers (3-Weeks)…………………….. 22
14.6 Step 6: Setting up One Stop Gold Trading Point Office (3-Weeks)…………… 22
14.7 Step 7: Circulation of Operational Manual and Guidelines (1-Week)………. 22
14.8 Step 8: Mining Operations Commissioning (1-Week)……………………… 22
15.1 Importance of Monitoring and Evaluation 22
15.2 Benefits of Monitoring and Evaluation……………… 23
15.2.1 Improved decision-making…………………….. 23
15.2.2 Enhanced accountability……………. 23
15.3 Implementation of Monitoring and Evaluation 23
Acronyms
| ASGM | Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining | |
| BOZ | Bank of Zambia | |
| CPs | Cooperating partners | |
| EDS | Export Diversification Strategy | |
| ESG | Environmental, Social and Governance | |
| GMCM | Gold Mining Cohabitation Model | |
| ICMM | International Council on Mining and Minerals | |
| IDC | Industrial Development Corporation | |
| IIED | International Institute for Environment and Development | |
| ILRI | International Livestock Research Institute | |
| KPIs | Key Performance Indicators | |
| M&E-F | Monitoring and Evaluation Framework | |
| MCTI | Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry | |
| MGEE | Ministry of Green Economy and Environment | |
| MLGRD | Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development | |
| MLSS | Ministry of Labour and Social Security | |
| MMMD | Ministry of Mines and Minerals Development | |
| MOH | Ministry of Health | |
| MOFNP | Ministry of Finance and National Planning | |
| MSMED | Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprise Development | |
| MWDS | Ministry of Water Development and Sanitation | |
| NAPSA | National Pension Scheme Authority | |
| NSCS | National Super Cooperative Structure | |
| OSGTP-OTC | One Stop Gold Trading Point Over-The-Counter | |
| SWOT | Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats | |
| UCDA | Uganda’s Coffee Development Authority | |
| UNDP | United Nations Development Programme |
| WARMA | Water Resources Management Authority | |
| ZASGMEZs | Zambia Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Economic Zones | |
| ZCCM-IH | Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Investments Holdings | |
| ZDA | Zambia Development Agency | |
| ZEMA | Zambia Environmental Management Agency | |
| ZRA | Zambia Revenue Authority |
Acknowledgements
I extend my sincere gratitude to all individuals and organizations who contributed to the development of the Gold Mining Cohabitation Model. Their expertise, insights, and support were instrumental in shaping the model and ensuring its relevance to the needs of Zambia’s artisanal and small-scale gold industry.
I appreciate the efforts of researchers, policymakers, and industry experts whose reports and content informed the development process. I also acknowledge the support of the government, artisanal and small-scale gold miners, development organizations, traditional leaders, and private sector entities that continue to safeguard the mining sector.
Special recognition goes to Enock Mundia, Kawan’u Kaponda, Samuel Litebele,
Gomezyani Ng’ona, Betty Mwangala Muhau, Wilson Onyango Odawo, Joseph Kaumba, Boniface Sianankange, and colleagues from African Rivers a nonprofit international organization for their tireless efforts and dedication. Their expertise was crucial in bringing the model to fruition.
Through a collaborative approach, I have developed a model that I believe has great potential to positively contribute to the much-needed transformation of the artisanal and small-scale gold mining industry in Zambia and the continent of Africa. I, therefore, look forward to continued partnership and engagement with all stakeholders to ensure its successful application and impact.
Executive Summary
The Gold Mining Cohabitation Model aims to boost sustainability, revenues and profitability within the Zambia’s gold industry. This model is designed to promote local participation, transparent transactions, and mutual cooperation between small-scale miners and large-scale processors. The model has been developed based on synthesis of different perspectives of industry experts and myriad secondary data using content analysis and phenomenology theories. Additionally, during the development process particular attention through stakeholder mapping was conferred to the identification of critical industry players that can impact or be impacted by the model.
The gold industry in Zambia has significant potential to spur economic growth and development. However, the sector faces challenges that include: lack of transparency, limited local participation, mercury use, limited financial resources, operate informally, and safety issues. To address these challenges, the Gold Mining Cohabitation Model has been developed and proposed to be applied in the Zambian gold industry.
The model’s key features include: conducting a targeted rapid stakeholder mapping to identify critical players; identify areas of collaboration, potential conflicts, and opportunities for support and capacity building; and develop a one stop gold trading point over-the-counter to provide a convenient platform for artisanal and small-scale miners to sell gold products directly to an anchor gold processor. These approaches create a platform for ready market, enhance transparency, accountability, and local participation, ultimately contributing to the industry’s stability and inclusive growth. The benefits of this model are multifaceted. These include increased revenue contribution to government treasury, local participation and sustainability which can be achieved, if the model is adopted and applied effectively in the gold industry in Zambia and beyond.
The implementation of the model involves a comprehensive plan that spans approximately six (6) weeks. This plan includes site identification and preparation, stakeholder mapping, appointment of the lead agency or site manager, registration of artisanal and small-scale gold miners, training and capacity building, anchor gold processor identification, auxiliary service providers identification, mining operations commissioning, and mining operational manuals and guidelines circulation.
The success and sustainability of the model would depend on conducting regular monitoring and evaluation exercises to track key performance indicators and make adjustments, as deemed necessary. The model’s potential to promote sustainability, transparency, profitability and local participation makes it an attractive solution for the country’s gold industry’s challenges.
Keywords: Gold mining cohabitation model, stakeholder mapping, partial equilibrium, sustainable development, people-centric, lead agency, cooperatives, artisanal outgrower schemes, anchor gold processor, and local participation.
1. Introduction
Zambia’s recent gold discoveries present a significant opportunity for economic growth, but ensuring local participation and sustainability remains a challenge (World Bank, 2020). The Gold Mining Cohabitation Model (GMCM)[3] addresses these issues through a peoplecentric investment approach, public-private partnership, leveraging innovation and local content strategies. This model can be easily replicated across various geographic areas, particularly after ring-fencing identified mining sites, preferably to be referred to as Zambia Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining Economic Zones (ZASGMEZs). The GMCM is a comprehensive approach aimed at transforming Zambia’s artisanal and smallscale gold mining (ASGM) sector. Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM) is generally defined as the extraction of mineral resources at a smaller scale and using more rudimentary and labor-intensive techniques compared to industrial open-pit mining (Hilson, 2016).
Artisanal gold mining is often associated with informal, small-scale mining activities, particularly in areas around active and abandoned mines. Mining is one of the key drivers upon which the country’s economic transformation and growth agenda is anchored (UNDP, 2020). A cohabitation model in mining refers to a collaborative approach that enables large-scale mining companies and artisanal and small-scale miners to coexist and operate in the same mining area (Veiga et al., 2022). This model aims to promote mutual benefits, minimize conflicts, and ensure sustainable mining practices. Therefore, by promoting collaborative approaches and sustainable practices, cohabitation models are expected to contribute to a more inclusive and responsible mining sector (ICMM, 2019).
The cohabitation model greatly benefits from the concept of equilibrium in order to foster mutual cooperation and achieve shared goals towards sustainability and inclusiveness. The concept of equilibrium is crucial in understanding the market dynamics and determining prices of commodities in any industry. ln economics, equilibrium refers to a state of balance or stability in a market or economy, where the forces of demand and supply are equal (Marshall, 1890; Samuelson, 1947). Specifically, partial equilibrium refers to the equilibrium in a single market, where the demand and supply curves intersect (Marshall, 1890). This equilibrium is often determined by the intersection of the demand and supply curves, which represents the point at which the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied (Hicks, 1939). Therefore, the gold mining cohabitation model has the potential to address the issues of unfair trading and price instability, and ultimately transform the country’s gold industry by building a competitive and trustworthy market. For purposes of this model the words sector and industry will be used interchangeably when referring to artisanal and small-scale gold mining in Zambia.
2. Problem Statement
Zambia has in the recent years experienced spontaneous discoveries of gold in some provinces notably North-Western Province (e.g. Mufumbwe and Mwinilunga districts). At the core of these events are the artisanal and small-scale gold miners. Artisanal and smallscale gold mining is a significant sector in Zambia, providing livelihoods for thousands of people and contributing to the country’s economy (Hilson, 2016). ASGM remains a vital part of Zambia’s mining industry, with many artisanal miners operating in various parts of the country (ICMM, 2019). Additionally, ASGM is a momentous industry in Zambia’s economy, providing livelihoods for thousands of people especially the youths. However,
the sector faces challenges such as limited access to formal markets, inadequate infrastructure, and lack of technical expertise (World Bank, 2020).
According to Hilson (2017), the lack of access to finance and technology is a major constraint facing ASM miners in Zambia, limiting their ability to invest in their operations and improve their productivity. The sector lacks transparency and accountability, making it prone to corruption and exploitation (Global Witness, 2017). Furthermore, the sector faces other challenges such as limited local participation, mercury use, operate informally, and safety issues. According to Bose-O’Reilly et al. (2010), mercury exposure is a significant health risk for ASM miners, particularly in gold mining. Despite these challenges, ASGM in Zambia presents several opportunities. Notably, it provides employment opportunities for thousands of people, contributing to poverty reduction and economic growth (Hilson, 2016). Additionally, ASGM can contribute to the country’s economic growth by generating revenue and stimulating local economic activity (World Bank, 2020).
3. Purpose
The purpose of this model[4] is to provide a practical and valuable resource supporting formalization efforts and sustainable development initiatives in Zambia’s artisanal and small-scale gold mining industry. It offers a comprehensive guide on implementing sustainable mining practices through diverse approaches and effective stakeholder engagement. The model through this handbook further highlights few best practices that could foster collaboration and promote sector-wide sustainability, ultimately benefiting miners, local communities, and the nation at large.
4. Objectives
The model is designed to create a conducive environment for all players in the gold mining industry value chain to effectively coordinate and coexist while promoting sustainable mining and community engagement.
4.1 Main Objective
The main objective of this model is ‘’to contribute to the creation of a more structured, sustainable, and beneficial gold mining industry that significantly support both economic development and social well-being of Zambians.’’
4.2 Specific Objectives
The specific objectives of the model are as follows:
- To enhance formalization of the artisanal and small-scale gold miners in Zambia;
- To develop an inclusive and cost-efficient coordination framework within the gold mining industry value chain; and
- To promote sustainable mining and safety.
5. Alignment to National Development Plan
The Gold Mining Cohabitation Model is a shining example of strategic alignment with Zambia’s National Development Plan (NDP) and initiatives. The current Eighth National Development Plan (8NDP 2022-2026) is a nationally owned and participatory document, developed through extensive consultations with various stakeholders. The 8NDP is a comprehensive and ambitious plan that has the great potential to significantly transform Zambia. This model is designed to support the government’s commitment to promoting local content and value addition initiatives, as outlined in the 8NDP.
In recent years, the Zambian government has taken intrepid steps to support the gold mining industry, introducing key strategies to formalize artisanal and small-scale mining activities. The proposed establishment of a National Super Cooperative Structure (NSCS) by the Ministry of Mines and Minerals Development (MMMD) is a sector game-changer, capable of enhancing coordination and supporting the artisanal and small-scale miners through tailor-made capacity building interventions. The Export Diversification Strategy (EDS) has also been instrumental in promoting value addition and formalization of the sector.
Furthermore, the government’s focus on local content development and value addition has ensured that the mining industry benefits the local communities and contributes to the country’s economic development. The handbook builds on these initiatives, by providing a comprehensive and ease to implement model that also complements national strategies. In this regard, by integrating local participation, transparent transactions, and large-scale processing, the model completes the industry circuit regarding demand and supply chains. This holistic approach supports the country’s economic development objectives, making the gold cohabitation mining model a vital component of the nation’s mining development agenda, especially targeting the artisanal and small-scale miners.
6. Stakeholder Mapping
A stakeholder mapping exercise is essential for successful model development, implementation and sustainability. The stakeholder mapping also helps to identify key stakeholders and analyze their interests or mandates in order to improve communication, reduce potential conflicts and foster trust and cooperation within the gold industry value chain.
Table 1: Identified key stakeholders in the gold sector for purposes of implementing the Gold Mining Cohabitation Model in Zambia
| S/n | Description of Activity | What is Needed? | Responsibilities |
| 1. | Ministry of Mines andMinerals Development
(MMMD) |
Sustainable mining; production and productivity; formalization; Safety; and EnvironmentalProtection | Provision of mining licenses; maintain public cadastral maps and registers; and monitormining operations |
| 2. | Ministry of Finance andNational Planning
(MOFNP) |
Economic growth, stability and development; resource mobilization; debt sustainability; and effective management of public finances | Promoting economic diversification; ensuring debt levels are manageable and sustainable; and supporting small and medium enterprises |
| 3. | Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprise Development (MSMED) | Access to finance; market access and export promotion; regulatory compliance; and business registrationsimplification | Provide overall direction and coordination for Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) across the country; promoting the creation of cooperatives; and support small and medium enterprises to participate in trade promotion activities such as exhibitions, trade fairs and expos |
| 4. | Ministry of Commerce,Trade and Industry
(MCTI) |
Economic growth and development; reduced costs of doing business; vibrant private sector; and carefully negotiated international trade agreements | Formulating and implementing through statutory bodies the commercial, trade and industrial policies; supporting private sector development; and coordinating international trade relations |
| 5. | Ministry of GreenEconomy and
Environment (MGEE) |
Environmental protection; and low-carbon development | Promoting sustainable use of the environment; coordinating responses to environmental disasters; and community engagement and education to promote environmentalawareness |
| 6. | Ministry of Water | Clean water supply; good | Ensure water security and |
| Development andSanitation (MWDS) | sanitation; water security; and sustainable water resources management | adequate sanitation for all; and provide policy guidance in the water sector | |
| 7. | Ministry of Local Government and RuralDevelopment (MLGRD) | Protection of the local communities; transparency; economic growth; andenvironmental protection | Facilitate dialogue among all stakeholders to foster mutual trust and transparency; monitor and enforce environmental and social standards in the mining sector |
| 8. | Ministry of Health (MOH) | Public health andenvironmental health | Conduct health impact assessments; provide medical interventions; monitor and address environmental health issues; protecting the health of communities affected by mining activities |
| 9. | Ministry of Labour andSocial Security (MLSS) | Mining companies are operational; mining companies comply with labour laws and regulations; and transparency and accountability | Enforce laws to protect worker and employer rights; facilitate social dialogue for industrial harmony; promote occupational safety and health initiatives to reduce workplace accidents and diseases |
| 10. | Zambia RevenueAuthority (ZRA) | Increased revenue collection; and enhanced tax compliance levels | Enforcing relevant laws and regulations related to taxation and customs; and provide advice on aspects of tax policy to the Minister of Finance; and assessing and collecting taxes and duties |
| 11. | Zambia Environmental Management Agency(ZEMA) | Pollution free environment; sustainable waste management; and increased compliance with environmental regulations | Encourage recycling and waste minimization practices; monitor and control pollution to prevent harm to human health and the environment; and ensure compliance with environmental laws andregulations |
| 12. | Zambia DevelopmentAgency (ZDA) | Increased investment in the gold mining sector; increased employment opportunities; and enterprise development | Attract foreign and local investment in the mining sector; providing necessary infrastructure and services; and support and facilitate largescale mining and mineralinvestment projects |
| 13. | Water ResourcesManagement Authority
(WARMA) |
Safe water environments; and mapped water resources areas | Ensure that the country’s water resources are managed sustainably, benefiting both the environment and local communities; ensuring mining activities comply with water regulations and permits; and monitoring water quality toprevent pollution |
| 14. | Cooperating partners(CPs) | Sustainable development; transparency and accountability; economic growth; and adoption ofmodern technology | Provide technical assistance; contribute to building local capacity by sharing knowledge, technology and best practices in mining and mineral exploration |
| 15. | Traditional Leaders | Sustainable development and community engagement; and knowledge enhancement about the benefits and risks associated with mining activities to ensure informed decision-making | Provide views on the potential mining right holders before the cadaster department grants licenses; work with mining companies to promote environmentally friendly practices; and represent the |
| interests of their communities | |||
| 16. | Media Houses | Investment potential and existing opportunities; transparency and accountability; community education; and increasedinvestment in the mining sector | Highlight government’s commitment to developing the mining sector; raising awareness about the mining sector’s impact on the economy; producing documentaries about investments both potential and existing opportunities; and supporting sustainable development by covering stories and experiences that promote responsible mining |
| 17. | Cooperatives (Artisanal and Small-scale Miners) | Maximize the benefits from the mineral resources; access to capital for investment; acquire business negotiating skills; and enter into viable miningpartnerships | Promote cooperative growth; promote sustainable financing; and foster strategicpartnerships |
| 18. | Universities/ResearchInstitutes | Knowledge enhancement; innovation; sustainable mining; inclusive growth; and sector performance | Provide training and education to students and professionals in mining best practices; collaborate with various stakeholders to promote responsible mining; conduct research on sustainable mining practices; and contribute to the development of policies and regulations in the mining sector |
| 19. | Other Private SectorPlayers (Banks,
Insurance, Restaurants, Equipment suppliers, Cement suppliers, etc.,) |
Mining companies are operational; financial inclusion; occupation safety; and adequate security | Provide affordable investment capital; supply of modern equipment and machinery; provide health insurance cover; provide outdoor cateringservices |
| 20. | Zambia ConsolidatedCopper Mines
Investments Holdings (ZCCM-IH) |
Investment partners; production and productivity; and economic growth | Collaborate with other institutions or companies to attract more investments in the mining sector; and create tangible wealth sustainably for the benefit of the Zambian people and all the stakeholders. |
| 21. | Bank of Zambia (BOZ) | Availability of gold products; and general price stability | Purchase gold products; formulate and implement policies to maintain price stability and manage inflation; and hold international reserve assets of the country |
| 22. | Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) | Investment opportunities; investors willing to partner through joint ventures; and economic growth and stability | Promote domestic wealth formation in the mining sector; promote industrialization and job creation efforts; and use profits from the gold mining to support the creation of a sovereign wealth fund |
| 23. | National Pension Scheme Authority (NAPSA) | Investment opportunities; investors willing to partner through joint ventures; and economic growth and stability | Promote domestic wealth formation in the mining sector; and promote industrialization and job creation efforts |
| 24. | Workers’ Compensation Fund Control Board(WCFCB) | Mining companies are operational; workers are registered with the regulator; and transparency andaccountability | Promote occupational safety and health initiatives to reduce workplace accidents and diseases; offer financial assistance to the dependants of workers who die due tot jobrelated accidents or diseases; |
| and facilitate the physical and vocational rehabilitation of injured workers to support their return to work | |||
7. Conceptual Framework
7.1 Relevance
A cohabitation model in mining refers to a collaborative approach that enables large-scale mining companies and artisanal and small-scale miners to coexist and operate in the same mining area (Veiga et al., 2022). This model aims to promote mutual benefits, minimize conflicts, and ensure sustainable mining practices. By fostering collaboration, cohabitation models can contribute to a more inclusive and responsible mining sector (ICMM, 2019). The gold mining cohabitation model has the potential to transform Zambia’s gold industry by promoting sustainable practices, local participation, and economic growth. This model could significantly impact national regulations, particularly in resource governance policies (e.g., formalization) and environmental efforts (e.g., reducing mercury use in artisanal and small-scale gold mining). Therefore, by integrating cohabitation and equilibrium concepts, the model offers a promising approach to sustainable gold mining in Zambia going forward.
7.2 Model Overview
The Gold Mining Cohabitation Model integrates four (4) key concepts, creating a complete circuit for investment and trade when dealing with artisanal and small-scale gold mining in Zambia and beyond. The model comprises the following interconnected components:
7.2.1 Site Manager
The concept of an anchor shop within a shopping mall is being relied upon, in this instance, where the site or property manager is tasked with the responsibility of managing the mall and interacting with all the tenants and players. The concept of anchor shop offers valuable insights into the dynamics of artisanal gold miners and mining activities, particularly in building multifaceted relationships and ensuring sustainability for mining cohabitation. Shopping mall management involves overseeing various aspects of a mall’s operations to ensure its success, including balancing the interests of primary stakeholders such as investors, tenants, and end-customers (García-Nieto et al., 2025). In the context of artisanal gold mining, a similar management framework can be applied to ensure the sustainability and transparency of mining activities within the ring-fenced mining site. This can be achieved by designating a Property manager or Lead agency to manage a ring-fenced mining site, where stakeholders can work together to achieve common goals (World Bank, 2020).
The site manager who assumes the role of a Lead agency would have to balance and integrate the interests of artisanal gold miners, anchor gold processors, local communities, and the government into the strategic planning process, ensuring the site operates smoothly and efficiently (ICMM, 2019). In artisanal gold mining, operations management can be applied by implementing transparent and accountable practices by all players, ensuring the sustainability of mining activities and minimizing environmental impacts (Hilson, 2016). As noted by Hilson (2016), artisanal and small-scale mining is a significant sector that requires effective management to ensure its sustainability and minimize its environmental impacts.
7.2.2 Cooperatives
The gold mining cohabitation model is also anchored on the concept of outgrower schemes often utilized in cooperative models. An outgrower scheme is a contractual arrangement where smallholder farmers produce crops or livestock for a buyer under agreed terms (FAO, 2018). This arrangement has been successfully implemented in various regions, particularly in Africa, such as Uganda’s coffee development authority supporting outgrower schemes for coffee farmers (UCDA, 2020). In the context of artisanal gold mining, similar schemes have been implemented through initiatives like Ghana’s Community Mining Scheme, promoting sustainable small-scale mining practices and providing employment opportunities (Ghana Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, n.d.). Similarly, in Zambia, the artisanal and small-scale gold miners operating as cooperatives or artisanal outgrowers can play a crucial role in providing the raw materials needed for processing within the designated mining site.
7.2.3 Anchor Gold Processor
The concept of an Anchor Gold Processor or downstream market off-taker is derived from the cooperative model, specifically the cooperative bulk collection centre. This model has been successfully implemented in various regions, particularly in Africa, where cooperatives aggregate produce from member farmers to enhance their bargaining power and market access (ILRI, 2019). Examples of successful Anchor gold processors in Africa include Sudan Gold Refinery, Kalgold Refinery in Tanzania, and Uganda Refinery Company (Africa Intelligence, 2020; Mining Weekly, 2020; The East African, 2020). The Anchor Gold Processor will co-exist with the Artisanal Outgrowers and the other players operating under the One Stop Gold Trading Point facility for sustainability and profitability of all players operating within the mining site.
7.2.4 Revenue Sharing Segmentation
The revenue or profit sharing segmentation is crucial for investment as it enables investors to optimize resource allocation and make informed decisions about investments and pricing. The following are the possible revenue sharing options for purposes of illustration of how the Gold Mining Cohabitation Model could be implemented:
7.2.4.1 Revenue Sharing Option 1:
- The anchor gold processor purchases the gold product from cooperatives and then sales all the gold to its preferred buyer but pays all the applicable taxes to treasury. For example, if the anchor gold processor is jointly owned between the private firm and the Government (preferably ZCCM-IH/IDC/NAPSA) then the shareholding equity portfolios will determine the profit distribution, say the private firm in the anchor gold processor holds (70%) and Government (30%). Notwithstanding, issuing more shares to the private firm in the anchor gold processor may act as an incentive for the investor to quickly mobilize resources and start operations but still remit all the applicable taxes to government and subsequent dividends or profits.
7.2.4.2 Revenue Sharing Option 2:
- The anchor gold pprocessor purchases the gold products from the cooperatives but directly sales all the gold products to the Bank of Zambia (BOZ) or to its preferred buyer and pays all the applicable taxes to treasury in the process. In this instance, if the anchor gold processor is wholly (100%) owned by the private firm then Government shall not be entitled to any profits or dividends. The private firm owns 100% shares in the anchor gold processor and gets all the profits but pays all the applicable taxes to the treasury. This can motivate the private firm to quickly start operations even within less than 6 weeks. However, if the Government chooses to acquire shares in this anchor gold processor, it shall only be entitled to the profits or dividends equivalent to the share equity allocated.
7.2.4.3 Revenue Sharing Option 3:
- The anchor gold pprocessor purchases the gold products from the cooperatives and only sales 20% of the quantities to Bank of Zambia and then retains 80% which it then sales to its preferred buyer but pays all the applicable taxes to treasury. This transaction arrangement may seem feasible in theory but in practice may be challenging due to transparency and accountability issues. In this instance, it is assumed that the anchor gold processor is wholly (100%) owned by the private firm and Government has no shares in the processor.
Figure 1: Graphical illustration of the Gold Mining Cohabitation Model in Zambia
Explanatory Note:
- – Administrative collaborations
- – Cooperatives supplying gold products
- – Anchor Gold Processor buys gold products
- – Cooperatives and Anchor Gold Processor pays all applicable taxes
E– Private firm owns shares in the Anchor Gold Processor
- – Government (ZCCM-IH/IDC/NAPSA) owns shares in the Anchor Gold Processor
- – Partners who own shares in the Anchor Gold Processor share profits or dividends
- – Bank of Zambia as a buyer of gold products from the Anchor Gold Processor
- – Buyer of choice is a preferred buyer of gold products supplied by the Anchor Gold Processor J – Cooperatives receive support (training, book keeping & accounting, annual returns, equipment, etc) through Government, Cooperating Partners, Private Sector
7.3 Key Characteristics
The gold mining cohabitation model is an eccentric approach that forms a multidisciplinary framework, aligning with the precious minerals industrial value chains to ensure sustainability and profitability for concerned stakeholders. The model’s key characteristics, reinforcing its relevance and application, are outlined below:
7.3.1 People-Centric Approach
The gold cohabitation mining model adopts a people-centric approach, prioritizing local communities and artisanal gold miners’ involvement and participation in mining activities. The model encourages citizens to get formalized in order for them to access approrpiate training, affordable capital and modern technologies.
7.3.2 Integration with Industrial Value Chains
The integration with industrial value chains is a crucial aspect of this model. This integration not only enhances productivity and quality but also promotes transparency and reduces environmental impact, contributing to the overall well-being of both miners and the broader economy. The model’s design ensures seamless integration with the precious minerals industrial value chains, promoting efficiency and sustainability throughout the entire production process. The model further helps to streamline processes thereby creating a more sustainable, efficient, and profitable gold mining sector.
7.3.3 Leveraging Expertise
The model combines insights from various disciplines, including economics, trade facilitation, psychosocial counseling and cooperative management, to create a comprehensive and relevant framework for sustainable artisanal and small-scale gold mining practices in the target mining area. The model’s key players include: the lead agency or site manager, artisanal outgrower, and anchor gold processor.
7.3.4 Sustainability and Profitability
The model aims to ensure sustainability and profitability for all actors operating within the economic zone, promoting responsible gold mining practices and contributing to the country’s economic development. This will be achieved through capacity building trainings, provision of modern technologies and fair-trading practices. Therefore, by integrating these key characteristics, the Zambia gold cohabitation mining model offers a promising approach to sustainable gold mining in Zambia, benefiting both artisanal miners and the broader community.
8. Literature Review
The Zambia gold mining cohabitation model is a novel approach to promoting coexistence, sustainability, and profitability in the country’s gold industry. This model is grounded in the principles of collaborative approaches and demand and supply forces, focusing on co-existence and maintaining price competitiveness (World Bank, 2020). The model’s core objective is to ensure industry stability and facilitate the free flow of market information, promoting a well-functioning gold market in Zambia.
The model is built on three pivotal concepts: the lead agency or site manager responsible for overseeing safety of the mine site, anchor gold processors, and artisanal outgrower schemes. The one stop gold trading point over-the-counter (OSGTPOTC) system to prevail within the economic zone provides a centralized platform for real-time gold trading, enhancing transparency and efficiency in the market (World Bank, 2020). Anchor Gold Processors play a crucial role in refining and processing gold, adding value to the raw material, and ensuring that the gold meets international standards (ICMM, 2019). Artisanal Outgrower Schemes empower small-scale miners by providing technical support, market access, and formalization opportunities, integrating them into the formal mining sector (Fairmined, n.d.).
People-centric investment approaches are a key aspect of the model, prioritizing local economic development and sustainability. Studies have shown that local participation is crucial for the success of investment projects in the mining sector (World Bank, 2019). Local participation can enhance economic growth, improve social outcomes, and reduce conflict (World Bank, 2019). Transparent transactions are also essential for promoting accountability and trust in the gold industry (EITI, 2020).
The model prioritizes sustainability and profitability, recognizing the need for a balanced approach that benefits both local communities and investors (UNDP, 2020). Therefore, by integrating local participation, transparent transactions, and large-scale processing, the model has the potential to transform Zambia’s gold industry and contribute to the country’s economic development. The model represents a promising approach to promoting coexistence, sustainability, and profitability in the country’s gold industry.
Globally, artisanal and small-scale mining is a vital economic activity, supporting millions of people worldwide. According to Fritz et al. (2018), ASM is present in 80 countries, with approximately 40.5 million people working directly in this sector and 150 million people dependent on it for their livelihoods. Success stories from Tanzania and Peru demonstrate the effectiveness of integrated approaches to ASM. In Tanzania, the government has established mineral demonstration centres for gold processing, providing training to artisanal and small-scale miners and offering gold processing services (Maganga et al., 2023). In Peru, artisanal and small-scale gold mining has demonstrated the effectiveness of system dynamics modelling in providing insights into sustainable practices under climate impacts (Aranoglu et al., 2022).
In Ghana, the government has implemented a community mining scheme to formalize and regulate artisanal gold mining, providing employment opportunities and promoting sustainable practices (Ghana Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, n.d.). In Mali, Artisanal Gold Mining Initiatives has implemented projects to support artisanal gold miners, promoting sustainable practices and reducing environmental impact (World Bank, n.d.).
9. Preconditions for implementing the Model
The successful implementation of the Gold Mining Cohabitation Model requires careful consideration of few preconditions. These preconditions are essential to ensure the model’s effectiveness in promoting sustainability, profitability, and economic development in Zambia’s gold industry. The following are the preconditions for the successful implementation of the model:
9.1 Identification of Potential Mining Site with Mineral Deposits
The first precondition is the identification of a potential mining site with significant mineral deposits. This involves conducting thorough geological surveys and assessments to determine the site’s mineral potential. However, in some instances the members of the community or citizens themselves may discover the mineral deposits in a particular geographical location as is the case in some districts in North-Western Province of Zambia.
9.2 Stakeholder Engagement and Ring Fencing of the Mining Site
The second precondition is stakeholder engagement and ring-fencing of the mining site. This would involve engaging with local communities, artisanal miners, and other stakeholders to ensure their active participation and support for the model. The ring fencing the mining site helps to prevent unauthorized mining activities, ensure safety, and protect the environment.
9.3 Identification of Key Players and Appointment of a Site Manager
The third precondition is the identification of key players to operate in the mining site and the appointment of a lead agency or site manager. This would involve identifying reputable artisanal miners or cooperatives, processors, and other stakeholders who can participate in the model. A lead agency would have to be appointed to oversee the implementation of the model, ensure compliance with regulatory requirements, and provide support to all the stakeholders.
10. SWOT Analysis
The Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) Analysis of the environment in which the Zambia gold mining cohabitation model is to be applied helps stakeholders to better understand the conditions and anticipate future occurrences capable of affecting the effectiveness of the model. Therefore, analyzing the environment in which the model is to be applied would help develop strategies for leveraging its strengths, address its weaknesses, capitalize on opportunities, and mitigate threats. Below is the SWOT Analysis:
10.1 Strengths
10.1.1 Unique Investment Approach
- The model offers a people-centric investment approach, integrating local participation, transparent transactions, and large-scale processing to ensure sustainability and profitability.
10.1.2 Increased Local Participation
- The model promotes local involvement, enhancing economic growth and investment opportunities in Zambia’s gold industry.
10.1.3 Competitive Pricing and Transparent Valuation
- The One Stop Gold Trading Point Over the Counter ensures competitive pricing and transparent valuation, benefiting artisanal miners and promoting fair market practices.
10.1.4 Large-Scale Processing
- The Anchor Gold Processor drives production and stability in the gold industry, attracting artisanal gold miners and cooperatives.
10.2 Weaknesses
10.2.1 Dependence on Global Market Trends
- Zambia’s gold industry is susceptible to fluctuations in global market trends, which can impact demand and prices.
10.2.2 Energy Infrastructure Challenges
- Frequent power outages and dependence on hydropower can affect productivity and income, particularly for small-scale miners.
10.2.3 Regulatory Uncertainty
- Changes in policies and taxation can deter investment and impact the model’s effectiveness.
10.3 Opportunities
10.3.1 Growing Demand for Gold
- Increasing demand for gold on the international market and the global trend of seeking safe-haven assets can benefit Zambia’s gold industry.
10.3.2 Investment in Renewable Energy
- Opportunities exist for investing in renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, to support the gold industry’s energy needs.
10.3.3 Exploration of New Mining Areas
- Potential for discovering new mineral deposits can expand Zambia’s gold production and economic growth.
10.4 Threats
10.4.1 Environmental Concerns
- Pollution and deforestation risks associated with gold mining can lead to stricter regulations and impact the model’s sustainability.
10.4.2 Global Economic Conditions
- Economic downturns can reduce mineral demand and affect Zambia’s gold industry.
10.4.3 Climate Change
- Unpredictable rainfall and droughts can impact hydropower generation, thereby affecting energy supply and gold production.
11. Potential Benefits
The Gold Mining Cohabitation Model presents several advantages that can significantly impact the development of the gold industry in Zambia. Some of the potential benefits of this model include:
11.1 Increased Local Participation and Sustainability
The model promotes local participation and sustainability by integrating artisanal and small-scale miners into the formal economy (Hilson, 2016). This integration can lead to improved livelihoods for local communities and more equitable distribution of economic benefits.
11.2 Improved Transparency and Accountability
The model’s emphasis on transparent transactions and accountable practices can enhance governance and reduce the risk of corruption in the gold industry (ICMM, 2019). This transparency can also foster trust among stakeholders, including investors and local communities.
11.3 Enhanced Economic Growth and Investment Opportunities
The model can stimulate economic growth and attract investment by creating a stable and predictable business environment (World Bank, 2020). This stability can encourage both local and foreign investment, contributing to economic development.
11.4 Stability and Predictability in the Gold Industry
The model’s focus on equilibrium can promote stability and predictability in the gold industry, reducing risks for investors and miners alike (Marshall, 1890). This stability is crucial for long-term planning and investment in the sector.
12. Risks and Mitigation
The implementation of the Zambia Gold Mining Cohabitation Model may be associated with various risks that need to be identified and mitigated to ensure the model’s success. Some potential risks and mitigation strategies are discussed below.
12.1 Risk 1: Regulatory Challenges
- Risk: Inadequate regulatory frameworks may hinder the effective implementation of the model.
- Mitigation: Strengthening regulatory frameworks and ensuring effective enforcement can help mitigate this risk.
12.2 Risk 2: Market Volatility
- Risk: Fluctuations in global gold prices may affect the profitability and stability of the model.
- Mitigation: Implementing risk management strategies, such as hedging, can help mitigate the impact of market volatility.
12.3 Risk 3: Environmental and Social Impacts
- Risk: Artisanal and small-scale gold mining activities may have negative. environmental and social impacts, if not managed properly.
- Mitigation: Implementing sustainable mining practices and conducting regular environmental and social impact assessments can help mitigate these risks.
12.4 Risk 4: Conflict and Instability
- Risk: Conflicts between large-scale mining companies and artisanal and smallscale miners may arise, if not managed properly.
- Mitigation: Fostering dialogue and cooperation between stakeholders, and establishing clear guidelines and protocols, can help mitigate conflicts and promote stability.
13. Conclusion
The country’s mining sector has undergone significant transformation characterized by implementation of new laws aimed at enhancing regulatory oversight, investor engagement, and local economic participation. The GMCM, therefore, presents a comprehensive approach to completing the gold value chain, ensuring sustainability, community involvement and profitability for all stakeholders. lt is clear that by integrating local participation, transparent transactions, and large-scale processing, the model has the potential to bring about a paradigm shift and sustainably develop the artisanal and smallscale gold mining industry in Zambia.
The importance of artisanal and small-scale mining cannot be overstated, as it supports millions of people worldwide (Hilson, 2016). Hence, governments and organizations are implementing initiatives to support ASM, such as training and capacity-building programs (ICMM, 2019). Sustainable practices and climate resilience are also essential for the longterm viability of ASM (IIED, 2018).
The GMCM offers an opportunity for expanding the export diversification agenda and create additional jobs in the mining sector. Therefore, application of this model is critical and urgent in order to pilot test its effectiveness and impact on the artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector. The model represents a comprehensive approach to managing stakeholders and provides clear transaction procedures in the gold industry. It is also grounded in environmental, social and governance (ESG) principles, tailored to the specific needs of Zambia’s mining sector.
14. Implementation Strategy
The GMCM can be applied on either an old non-operational mining site or completely a green-field gold mine recently discovered. The establishment of a sustainable and profitable gold mining operation in a designated site, leveraging on this model, requires a comprehensive implementation strategy that embraces the working concept of concurrency to achieve multiple tasks within a short and fixed timeline. This strategy spans approximately six weeks and encompasses several key steps.
14.1 Step 1: Identification and Preparation of Mining Site (2-Weeks)
The initial step involves identifying a gold mining site, engaging the local communities and ring-fencing the area to ensure security and safety. This includes conducting further geological surveys, and installing security cameras to monitor the site and prevent potential security breaches. It also involves the appointment of the lead agency or site manager to oversee the mining site and coordinate stakeholders within the premises.
14.2 Step 2: Registration of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners (3-Weeks)
The second step entails registering all artisanal and small-scale gold miners or cooperative members who will operate within the designated mining site. This process ensures compliance with regulatory requirements and verifies the miners’ credentials. The process ultimately helps to formalize the artisanal and small-scale miners who could have been operating informally and uncoordinated.
14.3 Step 3: Conduct Training and Capacity Building (3-Weeks)
The third step involves providing training to artisanal gold miners on various aspects, including mining safety, mental health awareness, extraction techniques, negotiation skills, and bookkeeping and financial management. This training aims to enhance the miners’ skills and knowledge, while promoting sustainable mining practices.
14.4 Step 4: Identification of an Anchor Gold Processor (3-Weeks)
The fourth step involves identifying a reputable and capable Anchor gold processor to operate within the mining site. This includes ensuring the processor meets regulatory and operational standards. The processor will then operate as a downstream off-taker of the gold extracted by the artisanal and small-scale miners from various upstream sources.
14.5 Step 5: Identifiy Auxiliary Service Providers (3-Weeks)
The fifth step entails identifying suppliers of various auxiliary services, including digital payment platforms, private security and drones, and utilities such as water, restaurants, and electricity.
14.6 Step 6: Setting up One Stop Gold Trading Point Office (3-Weeks)
The sixth step involves establishing a functional one-stop gold trading point office premises. This includes equipping the office with necessary infrastructure and personnel. The office will be used for inquiries, product verifications and cash payments for the gold certified for transaction. The office will accommodate other relevant institutions and the lead agency will be responsible of ensuring smooth operations and effective coordination.
14.7 Step 7: Circulation of Operational Manual and Guidelines (1-Week)
The seventh step involves circulating mining site operational manual and guidelines to all the stakeholders operating within the mining area. This ensures that all stakeholders understand their roles and responsibilities for smooth and efficient operation.
14.8 Step 8: Mining Operations Commissioning (1-Week)
The final step involves commissioning the mining operations and allowing artisanal and small-scale gold miners or cooperatives to start extracting gold from the source. This includes communicating to all stakeholders the schedule of monitoring and evaluation exercise. Notwithstanding, by following this implementation plan, the model can yield the desired results thereby proving to be an effective investment tool for transforming the artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector in Zambia. Below is the Gantt-Chart illustrating the project’s timelines and activities.
Figure 2: Gold Mining Cohabitation Model in Zambia – Six (6) Weeks Implementation Plan
| S/n | Description of Activity | Timelines (weeks) | |||||
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | ||
| 1. | Identification and Preparation of Mining Site | ||||||
| 2. | Registration of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners | ||||||
| 3. | Conduct Training and Capacity Building | ||||||
| 4. | Identification of an Anchor Gold Processor | ||||||
| 5. | Identify Auxiliary Service Providers | ||||||
| 6. | Setting up One Stop Gold Trading Point Office | ||||||
| 7. | Circulation of Operational Manual and Guidelines | ||||||
| 8. | Mining Operations Commissioning | ||||||
15. Monitoring and Evaluation
The GMCM necessitates a robust monitoring and evaluation framework to ensure its longterm sustainability. After establishing the preconditions of ring-fencing the mining site and positioning the relevant stakeholders, regular monitoring and evaluation become essential for long-term sustainability of the model.
15.1 Importance of Monitoring and Evaluation
lt is critical that regular monitoring and evaluation exercises are conducted by the Lead agency or Property manager in collaboration with other relevant stakeholders in order to continuously track the model’s effectiveness and identify areas for improvement. This would involve establishing key performance indicators (KPIs) to measure the model’s success, including: gold production levels; revenue generation; and compliance with safety and regulatory standards.
15.2 Benefits of Monitoring and Evaluation
The GMCM Monitoring and Evaluation Framework (M&E-F) offers several benefits, including:
15.2.1 Improved decision-making
- lt is important to track the KPIs and report performance, so that stakeholders can make informed decisions to optimize the model’s performance.
15.2.2 Enhanced accountability
- There is need to conduct regular monitoring and evaluation to enhance accountability among stakeholders, and ensuring that they meet their responsibilities.
15.2.3 Sustainability
- lt is important to identify areas for improvement, so that the relevant stakeholders can take corrective action to ensure the model’s long-term sustainability.
15.3 Implementation of Monitoring and Evaluation
To implement the Monitoring and Evaluation Framework (M&E-F) effectively, the following steps can be taken: establishing a monitoring and evaluation team to track Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) and identify areas for improvement; conducting regular monitoring and evaluation exercises to assess the model’s performance; and utilizing the findings to inform decision-making and optimize the model’s performance. The GMCM can ensure its long-term effectiveness, sustainability and promotion of responsible gold mining practices, if monitoring and evaluation can be prioritized and implemented.
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[1] The Model has been developed by Dr. Kelvin Kamayoyo drawing varied perspectives from selected relevant concepts and models such as the anchor shop concept within the shopping mall management, competition law principles; partial equilibrium model; lead agency management concept within the one stop border post; cooperatives model; people-centric concept; and revenue sharing model. The model was peer-reviewed by experts in mining sector, mining investors, artisanal and small-scale mining players, environmentalists, cooperative experts, and financial market and experts, and policy makers.
[2] Dr. Kelvin Kamayoyo, holds a Ph.D in Business Education Management; currently lecturing on part-time basis at Zambia Open University (ZAOU): https://www.zaou.ac.zm/; and National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA): https://www.nipa.ac.zm; and Technical Advisor for African Rivers: www.african–rivers.org; email: kamayoyokm@gmail.com. The researcher has specialized in international trade theory and competition law including river economics. He specifically publishes on topics related to international economics, sustainable mining; humanitarian actions, water security, tariffs, climate change, and industrial economics.
[3] The Model has been developed by Dr. Kelvin Kamayoyo drawing varied perspectives from selected relevant concepts and models such as the anchor shop concept within the shopping mall management, competition law principles; partial equilibrium model; lead agency management concept within the one stop border post; cooperatives model; people-centric concept; and revenue sharing model. The model was peer-reviewed by experts in mining sector, mining investors, artisanal and small-scale mining players, environmentalists, cooperative experts, and financial market and experts, and policy makers.
[4] Gold Mining Cohabitation Model (2025)
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